engineering chemistry book

Engineering Chemistry Textbook Book Description

Engineering Chemistry presents the subject with the aim of providing clear and sufficient understanding of chemistry to the students of engineering, as the same is imperative for any successful engineer. Some chapters in the book deal with the basic principles of chemistry while others are focused on its applied aspects, providing the correct interphase between the principles of chemistry and engineerContents:
* Fuels(Energy Sources)
* Solar Energy
* Electrochemical Cells
* Battery Technology
* Metal Finishing
* Corrosion and its Control
* High Polymers
* Water Treatment
* Liquid Crystals
* Instrumental Methods of Analysis
* Lab Manual in Engineering Chemistry
* Index

Book Details

Title:	Engineering Chemistry Textbook
Publisher:	IK International Pvt. Ltd.
Author:	R V Gadag, A Nityananda Shetty
Edition:	Paperback
ISBN:	8188237833
No. of Pages:	360

Deliverable Countries: This product ships to India, Sri Lanka.

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Customer Reviews : Engineering Chemistry Textbook

engineering drawing

University will conduct examination for 100 marks for this subject

Contact Hours/week: Lectures -2 ; Practicles -4

Syllabus

1. Introduction to Engineering Graphics: Drawing instruments and accessories, BIS - SP 46. Use of plane scales and Representative Fraction.

2. Engineering Curves: Classification of Engineering Curves, Construction of Conics, Cycloidal Curves, Involutes and Spirals.

3. Loci of Points: Path of the points moving on simple arrangements and simple mechanisms, slider crank mechanism, four bar chain mechanism etc.

4. Projections of Points & Lines: Introduction to principal planes of projections, Projections of the points located in same quadrant and different quadrants, Projections of line with its inclination to one reference plane and with two reference planes. True length of the line and its inclination with the reference planes.

5. Projections of Planes: Concept of different planes, Projections of planes with its inclination to one reference plane and with two reference planes. Concept of auxiliary plane method for projections of the plane.

6. Projections of Solids & Section of Solids: Classification of solids. Projections of solids like Cylinder, Cone, Pyramid and Prism with its inclination to one reference plane and with two reference planes. Section of such solids and the true shape of the section.

7. Development of Lateral Surfaces: Concept of development of the different surfaces. Parallel Line Development and Radial Line Development.

8. Orthographic Projections: Principle of projection, Principal planes of projection, Projections from the pictorial view of the object on the principal planes for View from Front, View from Top and View from Side using first angle projection method and third angle projection method, Full Sectional View.

9. Isometric Projections and Isometric View or Drawing: Isometric Scale, Conversion of orthographic views into isometric projection, isometric view or drawing.

NOTE: Topic No. 1, 8 and 9 of the above syllabus to be covered in Practical Hours.

Text Books:
1. Engineering Drawing By Agrawal and Agrawal, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi.

Reference Books:

1. A Text Book of Engineering Graphics By P.J.Shah, S.Chand & Company Ltd., New Delhi
2. A Text Book of Machine Drawing By P.J.Shah, S.Chand & Company Ltd., New Delhi
3. Elementary Engineering Drawing By N.D.Bhatt, Charotar Publishing House, Anand
4. Geometrical and Machine Drawing By N.D.Bhatt, Charotar Publishing House, Anand
5. Engineering Graphics – I and II By Arunoday Kumar, Tech – Max Publication, Pune
6. Engineering Drawing & Graphics using Auto CAD 2000 By T. Jeyapoovan, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
7. A text book of Engineering Drawing By R.K.Dhawan, S.Chand & Company Ltd., New Delhi
8. A text book of Engineering Drawing By P.S.Gill, S.K.Kataria & sons, Delhi
9. Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD By D.A.Jolhe, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi
10. Computer Aided Engineering Drawing, S. Trymbaka Murthy, I.K.International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi

Syllabus of JNTU Bachelor of Technology (BTech Common Syllabus) - CM05219 Engineering Chemistry / CM05044 Applied Chemistry Effective 2007-08 Batch

UNIT I: Water Technology-I

Introduction, Effect of Water on Rocks and Minerals, Types of impurities in Water, Hardness of Water - Temporary and Permanent hardness. Units and inter conversions of Units. Estimation of hardness by EDTA Methods. Problems on Temporary and Permanent hardnesses. Analysis of Water - Alkalinity; Chlorides and Dissolved Oxygen. Disadvantages of Hard Water. Methods of Treatment of Water for Domestic Purposes - Sedimentation, Coagulation, Filtration, Disinfection - Sterilization, Chlorination,Break point chlorination, Ozonization.

UNIT II: Water Technology-II

Water for Industrial purpose - Water for Steam Making-Boiler Troubles - Carry Over - Priming and Foaming, Boiler Corrosion, Scales and Sludges, Caustic Embrittlement. Water Treatment: - Internal Treatment - Colloidal, Phosphate, Calgon, Carbonate, Sodium aluminate Conditioning of Water. External Treatment - Lime-Soda Process, Zeolite Process, Ion- Exchange Process; - Numerical Problems.

UNIT III: Science of Corrosion

Definition, Examples, Types of Corrosion: Theories of Corrosion and Mechanism - Dry Corrosion, (Direct Chemical attack), Wet Corrosion, (Electro Chemical Theory) Principles of Corrosion, Galvanic Series, Galvanic Corrosion, Concentration Cell Corrosion, Mechanism of Wet Corrosion - Hydrogen evolution type, Oxygen absorption type. Factors Influencing Corrosion. Control of Corrosion - Proper Design, Use of pure metal and metal alloys, Passivity, Cathodic Protection - Sacrificial anode and Impressed Current. Modifying the Environment, use of Inhibitors.

UNIT IV: Protective Coatings and their applications

Surface Preparation: (1) Solvent Cleaning (2) Alkali Cleaning (3) Pickling and Etching (4) Sand Blasting (5) Mechanical Cleaning.
Types of Protective Coatings: Metallic Coatings - Anodic Coatings, Galvanization, Cathodic Coatings - Tinning, Metal Cladding, Electroplating Ex: Chromium Plating, Metal Spraying, Cementation-Sheradizing, Colourizing, Chromizing.
Chemical Conversion Coatings: (1) Phosphate (2) Chromate (3) Anodized Coatings.

UNIT V: Polymer Science and Technology

Polymerization Reactions - Basic concepts. Types of Polymerization - Addition and Condensation Polymerizations. Plastics -Thermosetting and Thermoplastics - Differences. Compounding and Moulding of Plastics - Compression, Injection, Transfer, and Extrusion molding methods. Preparation, Properties and Engineering Uses of the Following: Polyethylene, PVC, Teflon, Bakelite, Nylon, Polyester, Polyurethane and Silicone Resins. Rubber - Processing of Natural Rubber, Vulcanization and Compounding. Elastomers - Buna S, Buna N, Thiokol. Polyurethane Rubber.

UNIT VI: Refractories and Insulators

Refractories - Definition, Classification With Examples; Criteria of a Good Refractory Material; Causes for the failure of a Refractory Material; Insulators - Definition and Classification with Examples; Characteristics of Insulating Materials; Thermal Insulators, Electrical Insulators - Their Characteristics and Engineering Applications.

UNIT VII: Lubricants

Principles and function of lubricants - Types of Lubrication and Mechanism - Thick Film or Hydrodynamic Lubrication, Thin Film or Boundary Lubrication, Extreme Pressure Lubrication. Classification and properties of lubricants-Viscosity, flash and fire point, cloud and pour point, aniline point, Neutralization Number and mechanical strength.

UNIT VIII: Inorganic Cementing Materials

Cement: Important Parameters for Manufacturing Cement Clinkers. Chemical Constituents and Composition of Cement. Methods of Manufacture of Cement - Wet and Dry Processes. Additives for Cement. Properties of Cement - Setting and Hardening. Types of Portland Cement.

TEXT BOOKS

1. A text book of Engineering Chemistry by Jain & Jain, Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company, New Delhi(15 Ediction) (2006).
2. Chemistry of Engineering Materials by C.P. Murthy, C.V. Agarwal and A. Naidu BS Publication Hyd. 2007.

REFERENCE

1. A text book of Engineering Chemistry by S.S. Dara, S.Chand & Co, New Delhi (2004)
2. Engineering Chemistry by J C Kuriacose and J. Rajaram, Tata McGraw-Hill Co, New Delhi (2004)
3. Text book of Engineering Chemistry by Shashi Chawala, Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company, 15th edition New Delhi (2004).
4. Laboratory Manual on Engineering Chemistry by S.K. Bhasin and Sudha Rani, Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company, New Delhi (2004).
5. Engineering Chemistry by R. Gopalan, D. Venkappaya and S.Nagarajan, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi (2004).
6. Engineering Chemistry by R.V. Gadag A.N. Tyanand Shortly IK. International Publishing house Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.

Additional books for Mechanical Engineer

ing (Production)

Syllabus of JNTU Bachelor of Technology (BTech Common Syllabus) - PY05227 Engineering Physics and Applied Chemistry Lab Effective 2007-08 Batch

Any ten of the following experiments are to be performed during the Academic year.
Sl. No. - Name of the Experiment
1. Determination of Refractive Index of the material of a Prism - Spectrometer.
2. Dispersive power of the material of a Prism - Spectrometer.
3. Cauchy's constants - Spectrometer.
4. Determination of wavelength of a source - Diffraction Grating.
5. Determination of thickness of a thin object using parallel fringes.
6. Newton's Rings.
7. Determination of Rigidity modulus of a material in the form of a wire - Torsional pendulum
8. Melde's Experiment - Transverse and Longitudinal modes.
9. Determination of velocity of sound - Volume resonator.
10. Single slit diffraction using Sodium lamp.
11. Double slit diffraction using Sodium lamp.
12. Single slit diffraction using Lasers.
13. Double slit diffraction using Lasers.
14. Time constant of R-C Circuit.
15. L-C-R Circuit.
16. Verification of laws of stretched string - Sonometer.
17. Calculation of Frequency of A.C. mains - Sonometer.
18. Study of Characteristics of LED and LASER sources.
19. Study of Characteristics of p-i-n and avalanche photo diode detectors.
20. Bending losses of fibers.
21. Evaluation of Numerical Aperture of a given fiber.
22. Magnetic field along the axis of a current carrying coil - Stewart and Gee's method.
23. Hall effect.
24. B-H curve.
25. Energy gap of a material of p-n junction.
26. Determination of Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio by Cornu's method
27. Thermo Electric effect - Seebeck effect and Peltier effect.

REDOX TITRATIONS

1. Preparation of Standard Potassium Dichromate and Estimation of Ferrous Iron.
2. Preparation of Standard Potassium Dichromate and Estimation of Ferric Iron.

IODOMETRY

3. Preparation of Standard Potassium Dichromate and Estimation of Copper, by Iodometry.

COMPLEXOMETRY

4. Preparation of Standard EDTA solution and Estimation of Calcium/Hardness of Water.
5. Preparation of Standard EDTA and Estimation of Copper

PRECIPITATION TITRATION

6. Preparation of Standard solution of Zinc and Estimation of Ferrocyanide.

ANALYSIS OF MINERALS

7. Percentage Purity of Pyrolusite.
8. Percentage Purity of Lime Stone.

COLORIMETRIC ESTIMATIONS

9. Manganese in Steel
10. Iron in Cement

TEXT BOOKS

1. Chemistry Pre-lab manual by Dr K.N.Jayaveera and K.B. Chandra Sekhar, S.M. Enterprizes Ltd.
2. Vogel's Book of Quantitative Inorganic Analysis, ELBS Edition.

Engineering Drawing Practice Lab (As per JNTU Syllabus) Book Description

This textbook, Engineering Drawing Practice Lab is specifically designed as per the syllabus of the first year students of the circuit branches in various engineering colleges affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University (JNTU), Andhra Pradesh. Both the text and drawings presented represent latest concepts.

The book is illustrated with numerous solved problems from various leading universities so as to expose our students to all sorts of questions put to them in their examinations. The topics include bolt and nut, L-angle, funnel, table, stool, overhead tank, gland, stage, cavity block, drilling jig, cast iron and steel castings, hopper, chimney, duct, chute, V-block, bearing cap, open bearing, dovetail, fork, rocker arm, lock plate, trisquare, jig plate, flange, elbow, shaft bracket, machine clamp, tailstock, angle plate, electromagnet, I-beam, rod support, tray etc.

In view of the treatment of this subject reasonably in detail and the book being written in a simple language within the comprehension of an average student, it should serve as an ideal textbook not only for the students of JNTU but all others pursuing this subject in various universities, both in India and other developing countries.

About the Author(s):
Prof. K. Venugopal , B.E., M.Sc. (Engg.), F.I.E., M.I.S.E., M.I.S.T.E., is a retired Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Government College of Technology, Coimbatore. He obtained his UG and PG degrees from the University of Madras. He served as a Design Engineer in a reputed firm at Mumbai. Subsequently, he had been on the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in the Department of Technical Education, Tamil Nadu for over a period of 35 years.

He is a recipient of `The Best Citizen of India` award from an International Publishing House, in New Delhi. He is a Fellow of the Institution of Standards Engineers of the Bureau of Indian Standards (B.I.S.), Member of the Institution of Engineers and Life Member of Indian Society for Technical Education.
Contents:
Importance of Engineering Graphics Drawing Instruments and Their Uses
BIS Conventions and Specifications
Engineering Scales
Geometrical Constructions
Curves Used in Engineering Practice-Conic Sections
Cycloids and Involutes
Cylindrical Curves
Freehand Sketching Techniques
Orthographic Projections
Representation of 3-D Objects
Projections of Points
Projections of Straight Lines
Projections on Auxiliary Planes
Projections of Plane Surfaces
Projections of Solids
Auxiliary Projections of Solids
Isometric Projection
Conversion of Orthographic Views into Isometric Views
Conversion of Isometric Views into Orthographic Views.

Book Details

Title:	Engineering Drawing Practice Lab (As per JNTU Syllabus)
Publisher:	New Age International
Author:	K Venugopal

digital systems

As the complexity of modern digital systems increases, so does the need for ever more rigorous testing at all levels, from individual chips up to complete system architectures. This book is the most comprehensive introduction available to the range of techniques and tools used in digital testing. It covers every key topic, including fault simulation, CMOS testing, design for testability, and built-in self test. Aimed at graduate students of electrical and computer engineering, the book is also the most up-to-date reference on the market for practicing engineers

satilite communication

 The first satellite that was used for communication purpose in INDIA was ARYABHATTA and it was launched in 19^th April.1975. It was made and assembled by an organization called Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). In the year 1981, a satellite named APPLE was launched in space which was the first Indian Experimental communication satellite. The unique feature of it was that it was a three axis stabilization geosynchronous satellite and weighed around 645 kg. The term APPLE is an abbreviation for Ariane Passenger Payload Experiment. It consisted of a (6/4 Ghz) processing equipment called Transponder. Various experiments were carried out with APPLE, [SITE, STEP (Other satellite telecommunication experiment projects)] and the results obtained from these experiments provided an impetus for Govt. of India to have its own multipurpose Geosynchronous Earth Orbit satellite under INSAT (Indian National Satellite) program. The first satellite INSAT-1A was launched in the year 1982 which was under this INSAT program, but this effort went in vain as the power house of this satellite consisting of solar cells did not operate properly( failed to open) and this satellite was unused latter on. The average electrical power required by INSAT-1 was approximately 1000W and was provided by the power house subsystem of the satellite. The payload was one C-band transponder and two S-band transponders. Later succession of INSAT-1 series was launched like INSAT-1B, INSAT-C and INSAT-D. After this due to the success of the first generation satellites, INSAT-2 series was launched viz. INSAT-2A, INSAT-2B, INSAT-2C, INSAT-3D and INSAT-2E which provided variety of services.

 WHAT IS SATELLITE?

 A Satellite is a solid object which revolves around some heavenly body due to the effect of gravitational forces which are mutual in nature. We can categorize satellites in two types, namely Passive Satellites and Active satellites. Passive satellites are not like active satellites. Even a moon can be a passive satellite. Thus passive satellites are relay stations in space. A passive satellite can be further subdivided into two types, namely Natural satellites and artificial satellites. A moon is a natural satellite of earth. But spherical balloon with metal coated plastic serve as artificial satellites.

 Active satellites are complicated structures having a processing equipment called Transponder which is very vital for functioning of the satellite. These transponders serve dual purpose i.e. provides amplification of the incoming signal and performs the frequency translation of the incoming signal to avoid interference between the two signals.   

All ABOUT SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

 

The term Satellite communication is very frequently used, but what is satellite communication? It is simply the communication of the satellite in space with large number of earth stations on the ground. Users are the ones who generate baseband signals, which is processed at the earth station and then transmitted to the satellite through dish antennas. Now the user is connected to the earth station via some telephone switch or some dedicated link. The satellite receives the uplink frequency and the transponder present inside the satellite does the processing function and frequency down conversion in order to transmit the downlink signal at different frequency. The earth station then receives the signal from the satellite through parabolic dish antenna and processes it to get back the baseband signal. This baseband signal is then transmitted to the respective user via dedicated link or other terrestrial system. Previously satellite communication system used large sized parabolic antennas with diameters around 30 meters because of the very faint and weak signals received. But nowadays satellites have become much stronger, bigger and powerful due to which antennas used have become automatically smaller in size. Thus the earth station antennas are now not large in size as the antennas used in olden days. A satellite communication system operates and works in the millimeter and microwave wave frequency bands from 1 Ghz to 50 Ghz. There are various frequency bands utilized by satellites but the most recognized of them is the uplink frequency of 6 Ghz and the downlink frequency of 4 Ghz. Actually the uplink frequency band is 5.725 to 7.075 Ghz and the actual downlink frequency band is from 3.4 to 4.8 Ghz. The major components of a Satellite Communication system is spacecraft and one or more earth earths.

THE EXCITING COMPONENTS OF SATELLITE i.e ITS SUBSYSTEMS

• Attitude & orbit control system:

 This subsystem comprises of rocket motors that keeps the correct orientation of the satellite in space by moving it back to the correct orbit. Various external forces cause to change the parking position of the satellite. The primary factors are gravitational forces of sun, moon earth and also other planets of solar system. Other factors include solar pressure on the antennas and solar sails, which is present on the body of the satellite. All these factors are hugely responsible for misbalancing of the satellite and also responsible for changing the parking position of the satellite. Apart from this the earth’s magnetic field is also playing a major role in changing the parking position of satellite. The earth’s magnetic field generates eddy currents in the metallic structure of the satellite as the satellite moves through the magnetic field. Thus the body of the satellite gets rotated called as wobble of the satellite.

Remedy for Misbalancing of the satellite: station keeping:  It is a method of       periodically accelerating the satellite in the opposite direction against the forces acting on the body of the satellite like gravitational forces, eddy currents etc. in order to maintain the correct orientation of satellite in space and maintaining its orbit. The two most common methods employed to keep the satellite stable in orbit are: spin stabilization and three axes body stabilization.

• TTC and M SUBSYSTEMS: 

These subsystems are found partly on the satellite and partly on the earth stations. Data obtained from the sensors present on the spacecraft are sent by the Telemetry systems through telemetry link to the controlling earth stations. The telemetry system monitors the condition of the spacecraft. Furthermore the Tracking system is present on the earth station which is all concerned about range, azimuth angles and elevation angles of the spacecraft by providing necessary information on it. There are various techniques used for tracking of satellite:

1. Velocity and acceleration sensors on the satellite can be used to establish the change in orbit.
2.  Doppler shift of the telemetry carrier from the earth station or beacon transmitter may be measured to determine the rate at which the range is changing.
3. Ranging tones may be used for range measurement.

•  POWER SUBSYSTEM:

This is required to run satellite’s housekeeping and communication system. The block diagram of the power subsystem is shown as:

Solar panels generate direct current which is used to operate different subsystems. The batteries like Nickel-Cadmium batteries are charged by the DC power by employing the battery chargers. The stabilized low voltage is supplied to power various subsystems which are generated by the voltage regulator circuits. A dc to dc converter circuit generates high voltage dc which is used for operating the traveling wave tube amplifiers. Generation of ac from dc is done by dc to ac inverter circuits for running ac devices.

• PROPULSION SUBSYSTEM

 This subsystem can also be called as a reaction control subsystem. It is carried by the satellite in the GEO orbit. The dominant functions of it are:

·        It helps the spacecraft to move to its assigned position in orbit and also helps to maintain it in that position.

·        It is also used to maintain the direction of spin axis attitude control against the perturbation forces.

 The main components of propulsion subsystem are: Low thrust actuators, High thrust motors eg: apogee kick motor, Apogee boost motor and finally Perigee kick motor. Low thrust actuators are further classified as Chemical thrusters and Electrical thrusters. These thrusters are used for attitude and orbit corrections. Moreover the Electric thrusters are mainly of two types 1.> Plasma thrusters 2.> Ion thrusters.

• SPACECRAFT ANTENNA (subsystem)

 Antenna subsystem is also an essential component of satellite system. Basically four main type of antennas are used: these are Monopoles and dipoles (wire antennas)  which are mainly used in VERY HIGH FREQUENCY AND ULTRA HIGH FREQUENCY to provide communication for TTC and M subsystem. 2.> Horn antennas are mainly used at microwave frequencies. Horns are actually used as feeds for reflector. 3.> Array antennas are actually phased array antennas which are used on satellites to form multiple beams from single aperture. 4> Reflector antennas are commonly used for earth station antennas and the most widely employed shape of it is the paraboloid with a feed placed at its focus. The patterns for different satellite antennas are shown as:

 

 

• THE KEY ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT IN A SATELLITE OR TRANSPONDERS:

It is the key electronic component in a satellite. The transmitter receiver combination in a satellite is known as a Transponder. It performs two major functions 1.> It provides amplification of the signal thus providing a gain of around 110dB. 2> It also does the frequency down conversion or frequency translation of the uplink signal in order to avoid interference between the received and the transmitted signal.

Types of Transponders: 1. Bend pipe type Transponder 2. Regenerative type Transponder.  

Bend pipe type transponders are also called conventional type transponders.

Diplexer (acting as a two-way microwave gate) is the device which is responsible or used by the satellite for both receiving the uplink signal and transmitting the downlink signal. The frequency down conversion is done in the carrier processor. Amplification of the weak received signal is done in the front end. The downlink frequency is brought to a sufficient power level by amplification by the power amplifier such as Traveling Wave tube. The carrier processing equipment determines whether the transponder is of conventional or regenerative type

Regenerative Transponders: The regenerative transponder is one where there is provision for detection and demodulation process. The main advantages for these kind of transponders are:

·        The signal to noise ratio is improved.

·        These are simpler and more flexible to implement.

·         At low baseband frequency the amplification is easier to obtain in case of regenerative type.

Types of multi channel transponder systems: 

• Broadband system
• Dual channelized system.

The various frequency translation schemes in use:

FOR CONVENTIONAL TRANSPONDERS 

• RF-RF Translation: This is a single mixer system. The diagrams of it is shown below:

• RF-IF-RF translation schemes: This is a double conversion scheme using a single stable oscillator. This kind of translation scheme provides two advantages over RF-RF conversion scheme: 1. The process of carrier filtering is done at the IF band. 2. Before the return transmitted signal the uplink carriers can be easily removed. The diagram of it is shown below:

FOR REGENERATIVE TRANSPONDERS 

The two common schemes are:

• IF Remodulation scheme: In this technique the uplink RF spectrum is first translated down to low IF band , which is then modulated on to return RF.
• Demodulation- Remodulation scheme: The remodulation removes the uplink noise and interference from return modulation.

SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLES:  

 Satellites are launched into its orbit by the satellite launch vehicles. These satellite launch vehicles are basically multistage rockets. It is classified into two types:

• Expendable launch vehicle (ELV) eg: Ariane, Delta etc. These vehicles get destroyed in space and it also carries more than one satellite with it.
• Reusable launch vehicle (RLV). Also known as space transportation system (STV) eg: Space shuttle. In case of these satellites the vehicle will return back to the earth after leaving the satellite in space. Thus they can be reused again and again. 

Components of Launch vehicle:

• Propulsion system.
• Auto piloting system
• Aerodynamic structure
• Interactive steering subsystem 

DIFFERENCE OF COMMUNICATION SATELLITE FROM COMMUNICATION RELAY:

• For communication satellites the range is much higher than that of communication relay. Communication Satellite can cover up to several thousand kilometers.
• For communication satellite the uplink and the downlink frequency is the same. But for communication satellites the uplink and the downlink frequencies are different in order to avoid interference.

Different frequency bands used in satellite communication: 

• Ultra high frequency band (UHF).
• C-Band.
• X-Band.
• Ku-Band
• Ka-Band.